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Colloque : Using the Past for the Present : Medieval Narratives in Modern Political and Religious Discourse

Le colloque “Using the Past for the Present : Medieval Narratives in Modern Political and Religious Discourse” aura lieu les 28-29 mars 2025 à la John Cabot University (Vial della Lungara 233, Rome).

The conference aims to discuss the use of history for political and religious purposes, more specifically, the use of medieval narratives and traditions in the construction of political and religious visions in the modern era. Given the centrality of the Middle Ages in the development and dissemination of narratives aimed at the creation–or denial–of national and religious identities, the effects of which are long-lasting and touch the contemporary world as well, the conference aspires to re-discuss the importance of analyzing and understanding the past, especially the “medieval” past, in constructing the present.

The event is sponsored by John Cabot University’s Office of the President, Department of History and Humanities and the Guarini Institute, and co-sponsored by the Democracy Institute of the Central European University, Budapest/Vienna.

 

Programme

Friday, March 28, 9:30-10:00. Aula Magna

Welcome Remarks

Fabrizio Conti, John Cabot University

Tommaso di Carpegna Falconieri, University of Urbino Carlo Bo

Serena Di Nepi, Sapienza University of Rome

Umberto Longo, Istituto Storico Italiano per il Medioevo and Sapienza University of Rome

 

10:00-11:00. Aula Magna

Opening Keynote Lecture

“False Memories, Invented Histories, and the Historian’s Obligation to the Past and Present”

Patrick Geary, Institute for Advanced Study – Princeton

 

11:00-11:30 Coffee Break

 

Friday, March 28, 11:30-13:30. Aula Magna

Medievalism and Nation Building between Western and Eastern Europe

Chair: Tommaso Zerbi, Deutsches Historisches Institut in Rom – Max Weber Stiftung

Salvatore Liccardo, ERC Synergy Grant HistoGenes – University of Vienna, “Myth and History of the Antes: An Origin Story between Imperial Rhetoric, Marxism, Nation Building, and Eurasianism”

Donato Sitaro, University of Naples “Federico II”, “Teutonic Brothers and Aggressive Aborigines: Nineteenth-century Attitudes Towards the End of Roman Britain”

Huub Kurstjens, Dutch Institute for Educational Measurement, “Frederick II: From Mythomoteur to Mythophantom: Identity, Mythologization, Nationalism and Regionalism”

 

Friday, March 28, 11:30-13:30. GK11

State Formation and Nationalism between Western Europe and Russia

Chair: Vincenzo Tedesco, University of Messina / Central European University – Budapest/Vienna

Olga Kalashnikova, CEU Democracy Institute / University of Turin, “Eternal History of Rus(sia): Rurik and the Myth of State Formation in Russian Political Discourse (2011-2024)”

Carlos Llamedo Gutiérrez, Sorbonne Université, “Russia, France and Spain. A Proposal for a Comparative Study in the Medieval Turn of Modern-Day Nationalism”

Olga Kozubska, Central European University – Budapest/Vienna / Institute of Comparative Urban History (IStG) Münster, “Magdeburg Law: Medieval Phenomenon in the Public Memory and Political Discourse of modern Ukraine”

 

Friday, March 28, 11:30-13:30. GK12

The Iberian Peninsula

Chair: Eszter Salgó, John Cabot University

Ayse Naz Bulamur, Boğaziçi University, “Rendering the Spanish Civil War as Medieval”

Pedro Martins, NOVA School of Social Sciences and Humanities – Lisbon, “The uses of the Middle Ages in Contemporary Portuguese Right-Wing Nationalist and Far-Right Movements: The Cases of Chega and Reconquista”

Paula Almeida Mendes, University of Porto, “Political Uses of the Medieval Past in Portugal: Espelho de Lusitanos (1643) by António Veloso de Lira and the Legitimation of Power”

Alessandro Micocci, University of Genoa, “The Myth of the “Good” Colonial Portuguese from the Reconquista to Tourism Rebranding. The Monuments in Lisbon and the Defense of the Medieval Stereotypes in Contemporary Portugal”

 

Friday, March 28, 15:00-16:30. GK11

Architecture and Building

Chair: Tommaso di Carpegna Falconieri, University of Urbino Carlo Bo

Guido Zucconi, IUAV – Venice, “Shaping a New National Style for Unified Italy: the Middle Ages as a Main Source and the Building of the New City Halls”

Irene Giustina, University of Brescia, “Between Civic Memory and Progress. Neo-medieval Public Architectural Culture in Brescia through Some Exemplary Works of Antonio and Giovanni Tagliaferri”

Naomi Ruth Pitamber, Clark University, “Culturally Definitive, Yet Divisive: The Architectural and Religious Heritage of al-Haram al-Sharif / Temple Mount in Jerusalem”

Cosmin Minea, Masaryk University, “Old Buildings for Modern Times: The Revival of the Past Through Restoration of Monuments in Romania and Serbia in the Late 19th Century”

 

Friday, March 28, 15:00-16:30. GK12

The Reuse of Medieval Narratives in Early-Modern Times

Chair: Giulia Lovison, Scuola Normale Superiore Pisa

Michele Camaioni, Roma Tre University, “A Matter of Precedence. Early Modern Franciscans and the Use of Medieval Past in the Controversy on Missions in America and China with the Jesuits (XVII cent.)”

Vincenzo Tedesco, University of Messina / Central European University – Budapest/Vienna, “Reusing Hagiographies for Political and Religious Purposes. The case of Trajan’s Legend Between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance”

Tommaso Somigli Russotto, University of Milano-Bicocca, “Crusade, Peace, and Freedom: Narratives and Strategies of the “Italian Wars”

Hanna Feuer, Central European University – Budapest/Vienna, “The Emperor Beneath the Papal Foot: The Legend of Frederick Barbarossa and Pope Alexander III in the Context of the German Reformation”

 

Friday, March 28, 15:00-16:30. GK13

Political Identities Across the Two Sides of the Adriatic Sea

Chair: Vincent Ferré, Sorbonne Nouvelle University (Paris 3)

Izidor Janžekovič, Harvard University, “The Nationalistic History and Archaeology in Mid-War and Post-War Yugoslavia”

Şerban V. Marin, National Archives of Romania, “Clash of Civilizations in Venice. The Case of Attila”

Igor Vranić, University of Zagreb, “Medieval Narratives as Tools for Daily Political Struggles: The Role of Historiography in Early 20th Century Zagreb”

 

16:30-17:00 Coffee Break

 

Friday, March 28, 17:00-18:30. GK13

Medieval Narratives in the Russian Context

Chair: Olga Kalashnikova, CEU Democracy Institute / University of Turin

Dmitry V. Shlapentokh, Indiana University, “Medieval Discourse of Alexander Dugin”

Aleksandr V. Rusanov, Bielefeld University, “‘Ours’” and ‘Aliens’, Politicized and Depoliticized Middle Ages in Russian Local Memorial Practices”

Anna Zadora, Strasbourg University, “Perestroika and the First References on Belarusian History”

 

Friday, March 28, 17:00-18:30. GK12

Interplay of Religious, Cultural, and Political Narratives

Chair: Naomi Ruth Pitamber, Clark University

Pankaj Kumar Singh, Ambedkar University, “Contested Sacred Topographies and Political Mobilization: The Role of Medieval Temple Desecration Narratives in Contemporary Indian Politics”

Antonio Cuciniello, Università Cattolica Milan, “Christian-Muslim Dialogue: Between Past History and Present History”

Tommaso Zerbi, Deutsches Historisches Institut in Rom – Max Weber Stiftung, “A Tale of Three Empires: Architecture, Rome, and the Cultural Politics of Historicism from the British to Mussolini”

 

Friday, March 28, 17:00-18:30. GK11

Medievalism and Music, Philosophy, Economy

Chair: Fabrizio Conti, John Cabot University

Paolo Prato, John Cabot University and Roma Tre University, “The Discreet Charm of Revival: The Middle Ages Reinvented in Popular Music (A Brief Love Affairs in the Seventies)”

Alexander Jordan, Metropolitan University Prague, “Thomas Carlyle’s Medievalism Reconsidered”

Alessandro Signorini, John Cabot University, “From Medieval Guilds to modern AI: Historical Parallels in Managing Innovation Resistance and Employment Disruption”

 

Friday, March 28, 19:00-20:00. GK11

Keynote Lecture

“The Modern Uses of Medieval and Renaissance Narratives of Enslavement and Sexual Violence”

Tamar Herzig, Tel Aviv University

 

Saturday, March 29, 10:00-11:00. Aula Magna

Keynote Lecture

“Political Time Traveling – Middle Ages Reloaded: Hungarian and Russian Examples”

Gábor Klaniczay, Central European University – Budapest/Vienna

 

11:00-11:30 Coffee Break

 

Saturday, March 29, 11:30-13:30. Aula Magna

Medieval Narratives in Modern Political Discourse

Chair: Alessandro Micocci, University of Genoa

Balázs Nagy, Eötvös Loránd University, “The Mongol Invasions in the Discourse of the Twentieth-Century Hungarian Politics”

Nelson Lewis Bennett, Central European University – Budapest/Vienna, “A Fictional Narrative, A Real Call to Arms: The Clash of Civilizations Narrative Reimagined for the American Alt-Right”

Felipe Brandi, NOVA University – Lisbon, “The Medievalist Historian and the Political Uses of History. On Georges Duby and His Campaign Against Right-Wingers”

 

Saturday, March 29, 11:30-13:30. Boardroom

Religious, Political, and Literary Narratives

Chair: Huub Kurstjens, Dutch Institute for Educational Measurement

Luca Barison, Georgetown University, “Barbarians at the Gates, Barbarians Inside the Gates. The Wewelsburg and the Nazi Barbaric Middle Ages”

Levente Seláf, Eötvös Loránd University, “The Defamation of Charity. The Posthumous Sufferings of Saint Martin in the Mouth of Hungarian Populist Propaganda”

Elodie Burle-Errecade, Aix-Marseille University, “A Middle Ages Under the Magnifying Glass: Enlarging to Reveal”

 

Saturday, March 29, 11:30-13:30. G11

Medievalism and Politics in Comparative Perspectives

Chair: Fabrizio Conti, John Cabot University

Claire Dillon, American Academy in Rome and Columbia University, “Constructing Mediterranean Medievalism in Italian Africa”

Ibrahim Al-Marashi, California State University San Marcos, “Saddam as Crusader”

Ansil Kanjirathinkal Muhammed, Jawaharlal Nehru University – New Delhi, “From Hyderabad to ‘Bhagyanagar’: A Modern Perspective on Urban Nomenclature, Political Contestation, and Cultural Memory”

 

Saturday, March 29, 15:00-16:30. GG1

Identity Formation Through Folklore and Art

Chair: Tommaso di Carpegna Falconieri, University of Urbino Carlo Bo

Giulia Lovison, Scuola Normale Superiore Pisa, “Do Witches Still Exist? Politics, Religion, and Society”

Francesca Vera Romano, Deputazione di Storia Patria per la Lucania, “Superstition and Identity: Ecclesiastical Authorities and Greek Minorities in Early Modern Southern Italy”

Marina Bernardi, Roma Tre University – UPEC Paris Créteil, “Antonello da Messina: Painter, Saviour and Saint. Recovering the Memory of Messina, Promoting Sicilian Identity”

 

Saturday, March 29, 15:00-16:30. G11

Medievalism in Literature

Chair: Levente Seláf, Eötvös Loránd University

Davide Iacono, PRIN “Framing Medievalism” –

University of Urbino Carlo Bo, “‘Disarmato, l’umile sarà ulteriormente umiliato’: Medievalism and Political Struggle in the Eymerich Cycle by Valerio Evangelisti”

Giancarlo Tursi, University of California Santa Barbara, “Dante, Prophet of Fascism”

Fiona McIntosh-Varjabédian, University of Lille, “Medieval Communal Freedom: The Political and Literary Stakes of Another Tradition of Freedom”

Hugo Lacoue-Labarthe, Sorbonne Nouvelle University, “Translating, Rewriting and Editing the Eddas, a Necessarily Political Endeavour? From Tolkien to the Contemporary French Editorial Field”

 

Saturday, March 29, 15:00-16:30. Boardroom

The Balkans

Chair: Balázs Nagy, Eötvös Loránd University

Tea Hodaj, Universität Flensburg, “Medieval Narratives, Ottoman Legacy, and the Balkan Conflicts of the 90s: A Historical Continuum”

Domagoj Krpan, University of Rijeka, “King Tomislav and Gregory of Nin in Modern Croatian Discourse”

Dženan Dautović, University of Tuzla, “The Most Potent Tool: The Use and Abuse of the Bosnian Church in Political Systems of Modern Bosnia and Herzegovina”

 

16:30-17:00 – Coffee Break

 

Saturday, March 29, 17:00-19:30. Aula Magna

Student Presentations / Final Roundtable Discussion

Concluding Remarks

 

Colloque : Medievalisms of the Margins

Le colloque international “Medievalisms of the Margins”, organisé par Thomas Mohnike et Tatiana Victoroff, aura lieu à l’Université de Strasbourg du 27 au 29 mars 2025. Il accueillera également l’Assemblée générale de Modernités médiévales le jeudi 27 mars à 18h.

Programme

March 27 – Medievalism Across Cultures and Heritage Politics

 09:00 – 09:30. Welcome : Thomas Mohnike, Tatiana Victoroff

Medievalism and Heritage Politics in Eastern Europe

09:30 – 10:00. Yordan Lyutskanov – Medievalism medievality medieval studies and non-Latin Christendom

10:00 – 10:30. Olga Tabachnikova – New Middle Ages” of Berdyaev and “Old” Middle Ages on the Margins of Soviet Culture

10:30 – 11:00. Coffee Break

11:00 – 11:30. Raymond Detrez – Dealing with the Middle Ages: three approaches in three junctures

11:30 – 12:00. Rafał Quirini-Popławski – Ambiguous perception of the Genoese heritage at the Black Sea

12:00 – 14:00. Lunch Break

Medievalist Interpretations and Global Narratives

14:00 – 14:30. Claudia Criveller – “Sensus et ars medici curant, non verbae sophistae”. A case study: Ivaz Lazhechnikov’s Basurman

14:30 – 15:00. Kristina Landa – Vita nova in the new life. Paratexts to Dante’s first book in post-revolutionary Russia

15:00 – 15:30. Barbara Lomagistro (Università di Firenze) – Medieval religious topics in Balkan-Slavic discourses of identity

15:30 – 16:00. Coffee Break

16:00 – 16:30. Justine Breton – A Bridge Between Medievalist Traditions: The Witcher, From Poland to the Rest of the World

16h30-17h. Camille-Apollonia Narducci : Aux confins de l’Europe : une troisième voie médiévaliste chez Andrus Kivirähk ?

18:00. Assemblée Générale Modernités médiévales. Lien de connexion. 

20:00. Diner

March 28 –      Nordic Myths and Medievalist Narratives

Norse Mythology and Revival in Art, Architecture, and Fantasy

09:00 – 09:30. Susan Filoche-Romme – Making Norse Gods from Graeco-Roman Models: Danish Artists

09:30 – 10:00. Tonje Haugland Sørensen – A discovery of dragons – Norse Revival Architecture

10:00 – 10:30. Solenne Guyot – Viking Fantasies in Ibsen’s Dramas

10:30 – 11:00. Coffee Break

11:00 – 11:30. Alexandre Zeitler – De Bergslien à Norrøna: construction of Birkebeiner motif in Norwegian friluftsliv

11:30 – 12:00. Simon Halink – ‘Now comes the North!’ The Viking as a contemporary symbol of regional otherness.

12:00 – 14:00. Lunch Break

Vikings outside Scandinavia 

14:00 – 14:30. Martin Theiller – The Sea-Kings of Britain

14:30 – 15:00. Ciaran McDonough – Vikings in Nineteenth-Century Ireland

15:00 – 15:30. Gylfi Gunnlaugsson – Integrating the Periphery: Iceland in Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué’s works

15:30 – 16:00. Coffee Break

At the crossroads of Slavic and Norse myths

16:00 – 16:30. Szczur Przemyslaw – Le Moyen Âge polonais dans les romans historiques transnationaux polono-français de l’époque romantique

16:30 – 17:00. Giuseppina Giuliano – The poem Olind i Sofronija by Aleksandr Šachovskoj

17:00 – 17:30. Tatiana Victoroff – Les mythes scandinaves médiévaux et l’Age d’argent russe : Velga, « légende nordique » d’Ivan Bounine

18:30 – 19:30. Cultural Evening Event: Jon Fosse Night – Reading performance by Scandinavian Studies students

March 29 : Fantasy, Borders, and the Legacy of Medievalism

Medievalism Reimagined: Literature, Fantasy, and Global Narratives

09:00 – 09:30. Riva Evstifeeva & Sara Dickinson – Ossian, entre toge et cotte de mailles : le choix des genres littéraires dans la réception européenne du cycle ossianique (XVIIIe et XIXe siècles)

09:30 – 10:00. Florian Besson – Un Moyen Âge à saveur orientale ?

10:00 – 10:30. Martin Carayol – Les mythèmes dans les jeux de rôle médiévaux- fantastiques

10:30 – 11:00. Coffee Break

11:00 – 11:30. Teiko Nakamaru – Shingeki no Kyojin by Hajime Isayama as a reception of Norse mythology

11:30 – 12:00. Valentin Feix – Rien n’est vrai, tout est permis : la représentation de l’Orient et son évolution dans Assassin’s Creed

12:00 – 12:30. Pierre-Brice Stahl – L’imaginaire de l’âge viking, une altérité identitaire

12:30. Closing remarks

 

Parution : Medievalism and Slavic Popular Culture

Anna Czarnowus et Laurel Ryan (dir.), Medievalism and Slavic Popular Culture, ARC Humanities, coll. “Arc Medievalist”, 2025.

Although scholars are increasingly engaged with medievalism as a global phenomenon, its manifestations in the popular cultures of East and Central Europe are relatively unexamined. In a period of regional unrest, invocations of the medieval in Slavic regions are often political. Politicians use the past for nationalistic reasons. Popular renderings, such as animated films, can also appeal to nationalist sentiment. Yet, although medievalist appeals have been fundamental to official myths of nation-formation, they are also integral to countercultural ideologies. Medieval fantasy literature has traditionally provided one such nexus. More recently, medievalism has emerged in carnivalesque elements of pop punk music. Medievalisms also exist in the play spaces of reenactments of medieval life and combat. Yet even in play, these acts are never neutral: controlling the story of the past always has consequences in the now. 

 

Table des matières

List of Illustrations

Introduction. “Creative, Political, and Lived Medievalisms in Slavic Popular Culture,” by Anna Czarnowus and Laurel Ryan

Chapter 1. “The Wolin Village in Poland as a Site of Politicized Living History,” by Anna Czarnowus

Chapter 2. “Modern Knights: An Analysis of the Tools and Modes of Medieval Combat Reenactment in Central and Eastern Europe,” by Przemysław Grabowski-Górniak

Chapter 3. “Mieszko and the Piasts in Polish Law and Justice (PiS) Political Discourse,” by Chris Halsted

Chapter 4. “Creativity and Interpretation: Medievalism in the Soviet Unofficial Culture of the Stagnation Period (1964–1984),” by Pavel S. Bychkov

Chapter 5. “Medieval Figures of Reversal in Texts of Polish Alternative Music,” by Adam Regiewicz

Chapter 6. “Satirizing Political Culture in the Animated Ilya of Murom and Nightingale the Robber (2007),” by Anastasjia Ropa, Edgar Rops, and Maria Inês Bolinhas

Index

 

Dans leur introduction intitulée « Creative, Political, and Lived Medievalisms in Slavic Popular Culture », Anna Czarnowus et Laurel Ryan commencent par rappeler que la périodisation traditionnelle du Moyen Âge, du Ve au XVe siècles, concerne surtout l’Ouest et le Nord de l’Europe, et qu’elle a moins de pertinence lorsque l’on s’intéresse à l’Europe centrale et de l’Est. Comme les études médiévales et la philologie, en tant que disciplines scientifiques, naissent dans les pays slaves en même temps que les projets nationalistes du XIXe siècle, le médiévalisme slave se teinte dès son apparition d’une forte politisation. Cela se traduit notamment, aujourd’hui encore, par une grande importance accordée aux enjeux d’« authenticité », au sens de véracité historique, y compris dans la reconstitution et le divertissement, et alors même qu’une forme d’appropriation est toujours en jeu. Alors que cet ouvrage a été écrit et publié dans un contexte de guerre en Ukraine qui se prolonge toujours plus dangereusement, les autrices rappellent que la question de l’utilisation du Moyen Âge slave dans des revendications politiques – nationalistes ou anti-nationalistes – n’est jamais à négliger : « On the one hand, practising the medieval can be liberatory; on the other, it can be used to oppress. In the communist era, references to the medieval past detached artists from the gloomy present that surrounded them. Yet even as a mode of escape, popular medievalism preserves its political nature. » (p.12).

L’ouvrage proposé ici regroupe six articles consacrés à la reconstitution historique, au médiévalisme politique – à la fois dans sa facette gouvernementale et dans ses usages dissidents – et au médiévalisme dit « créatif » qui apparaît dans la production artistique et littéraire.

L’article d’Anna Czarnowus s’intéresse au festival médiéval du village de Wolin, en Pologne, en tant que « site d’histoire vivante politisée ». L’autrice montre que les questions de divertissement sont chaque fois soumises au suprémacisme blanc, au néopaganisme et à une forme de conservatisme genré. La représentation du Moyen Âge, sous prétexte d’authenticité, est ainsi soumise à des biais de plus en plus problématiques.

Dans son chapitre « Modern Knights: An Analysis of the Tools and Modes of Medieval Combat Reenactment in Central Europe », Przemysław Grabowski-Górniak revient sur la place des AMHE dans les pays slaves et leur ancrage dans une perspective internationale, en rappelant comment la reconstitution de combats médiévalistes est devenue une activité sportive après la chute du Rideau de fer.

Chris Halsted revient sur l’utilisation et la réinterprétation des figures de Mieszko Ier de Pologne et de son fils Bolesław Chrobry (dit le Vaillant), et plus généralement de la maison Piast (Xe siècle), dans la Pologne des XXe et XXIe siècles, notamment dans le cadre de la montée en puissance du parti Droit et Justice (PiS). L’étude propose une approche historique et s’appuie en particulier sur les sources fournies par la presse du tournant du siècle.

Le riche article suivant, proposé par Pavel S. Bychkov, analyse les formes de résistance médiévalistes face à une Union soviétique assimilée aux « Âges sombres » durant la période de « Stagnation » (1964-1984). La production culturelle de cette époque, avec notamment la traduction non officielle de l’œuvre de J.R.R. Tolkien et la composition et diffusion de musique médiévaliste, forme une contre-culture de résistance qui s’appuie sur la glorification de la période médiévale.

Cette perspective est prolongée dans l’article d’Adam Regiewicz, « Medieval Figures of Reversal in Texts of Polish Alternative Music », consacré à la musique underground polonaise. Cette création puise dans le concept bakhtinien du carnaval pour exprimer une forme de rébellion populaire vis-à-vis du pouvoir communiste. L’analyse des motifs du fou et de l’évêque chevauchant un cochon, notamment, montrent une continuité forte dans cet usage du médiévalisme à la fois comme résistance et comme contre-culture.

Enfin, l’ouvrage se conclut sur une étude de cas proposée par Anastasija Ropa, Edgar Rops et Maria Inês Bolinhas, consacrée au film d’animation russe Ilya of Murom and Nightingale the Robber (2007). L’article montre comment les stéréotypes médiévalistes, teintés d’une lecture satirique, rejoignent un propos politique et interrogent ainsi les idées associées aux Rus’.

Si les différents chapitres abordent des points fort intéressants, et pour beaucoup peu connus de l’histoire européenne et de la place du médiévalisme dans les pays d’Europe centrale et de l’Est, l’on regrettera une juxtaposition qui peine à conférer une vue d’ensemble à l’ouvrage. Ainsi le volume n’est-il pas composé en parties, mais enchaîne les six chapitres selon un ordre souvent peu clair. La lecture des différents chapitres permet de souligner quelques lignes directrices discrètes (la représentation carnavalesque, la place de la fantasy, le rapport à l’histoire et à la culture russes, et surtout les enjeux politiques et religieux), dont certaines sont également rappelées dans l’index final très pratique. L’on comprend, à la lecture des articles, que l’influence du médiévalisme slave s’étend au-delà des seuls pays d’Europe centrale et de l’Est, et que ces questions sont toujours à considérer au prisme des questions politiques contemporaines ; mais il s’agit plus d’éléments diffus que d’un propos unifié. L’absence de conclusion renforce encore cette impression d’éparpillement et non d’étude centralisée, ce qui est peut-être compréhensible pour une facette du médiévalisme récente, tant du point de vue historique que scientifique, et où beaucoup reste encore à construire.

Justine Breton

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